2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
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\chapter{Introduction}
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Competitive programming combines two topics:
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(1) design of algorithms and (2) implementation of algorithms.
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The \key{design of algorithms} consists of problem solving
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and mathematical thinking.
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Skills for analyzing problems and solving them
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using creativity is needed.
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An algorithm for solving a problem
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has to be both correct and efficient,
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and the core of the problem is often
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how to invent an efficient algorithm.
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Theoretical knowledge of algorithms
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is very important to competitive programmers.
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Typically, a solution for a problem is
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a combination of well-known techniques and
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new insights.
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The techniques that appear in competitive programming
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also form the basis for the scientific research
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of algorithms.
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The \key{implementation of algorithms} requires good
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programming skills.
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In competitive programming, the solutions
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are graded by testing an implemented algorithm
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using a set of test cases.
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Thus, it is not enough that the idea of the
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algorithm is correct, but the implementation has
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to be correct as well.
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Good coding style in contests is
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straightforward and concise.
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The solutions should be written quickly,
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because there is not much time available.
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Unlike in traditional software engineering,
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the solutions are short (usually at most some
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hundreds of lines) and it is not needed to
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maintain them after the contest.
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\section{Programming languages}
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\index{programming language}
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At the moment, the most popular programming
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languages in contests are C++, Python and Java.
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For example, in Google Code Jam 2016,
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among the best 3,000 participants,
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73 \% used C++,
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15 \% used Python and
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10 \% used Java\footnote{\url{https://www.go-hero.net/jam/16}}.
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Some participants also used several languages.
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Many people think that C++ is the best choice
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for a competitive programmer,
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and C++ is nearly always available in
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contest systems.
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The benefits in using C++ are that
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it is a very efficient language and
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its standard library contains a
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large collection
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of data structures and algorithms.
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On the other hand, it is good to
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master several languages and know the
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benefits of them.
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For example, if big integers are needed
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in the problem,
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Python can be a good choice because it
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contains a built-in library for handling
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big integers.
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Still, usually the goal is to write the problems so that
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the use of a specific programming language
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is not an unfair advantage in the contest.
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All examples in this book are written in C++,
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and the data structures and algorithms in
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the standard library are often used.
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The standard is C++11 that can be used in most
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contests.
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If you can't program in C++ yet,
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now it is a good time to start learning.
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\subsubsection{C++ template}
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A typical C++ template for competitive programming
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looks like this:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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#include <bits/stdc++.h>
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using namespace std;
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int main() {
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// koodi tulee tähän
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}
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\end{lstlisting}
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The \texttt{\#include} line at the beginning
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is a feature in the \texttt{g++} compiler
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that allows to include the whole standard library.
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Thus, it is not needed to separately include
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libraries such as \texttt{iostream},
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\texttt{vector} and \texttt{algorithm},
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but they are available automatically.
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The following \texttt{using} line determines
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that the standard library can be used directly
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in the code.
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Without the \texttt{using} line we should write,
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for example, \texttt{std::cout},
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but now it is enough to write \texttt{cout}.
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The code can be compiled using the following command:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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g++ -std=c++11 -O2 -Wall code.cpp -o code
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\end{lstlisting}
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This command produces a binary file \texttt{code}
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from the source code \texttt{code.cpp}.
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The compiler obeys the C++11 standard
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(\texttt{-std=c++11}),
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optimizes the code (\texttt{-O2})
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and shows warnings about possible errors (\texttt{-Wall}).
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\section{Input and output}
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\index{input and output}
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In most contests, standard streams are used for
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reading input and writing output.
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In C++, the standard streams are
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\texttt{cin} for input and \texttt{cout} for output.
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In addition, the C functions
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\texttt{scanf} and \texttt{printf} can be used.
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The input for the program usually consists of
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numbers and strings that are separated with
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spaces and newlines.
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They can be read from the \texttt{cin} stream
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as follows:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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int a, b;
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string x;
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cin >> a >> b >> x;
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\end{lstlisting}
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This kind of code always works,
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assuming that there is at least one space
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or one newline between each element in the input.
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For example, the above code accepts
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both the following inputs:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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123 456 apina
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\end{lstlisting}
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\begin{lstlisting}
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123 456
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apina
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\end{lstlisting}
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The \texttt{cout} stream is used for output
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as follows:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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int a = 123, b = 456;
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string x = "apina";
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cout << a << " " << b << " " << x << "\n";
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\end{lstlisting}
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Handling input and output is sometimes
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a bottleneck in the program.
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The following lines at the beginning of the code
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make input and output more efficient:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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ios_base::sync_with_stdio(0);
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cin.tie(0);
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\end{lstlisting}
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Note that the newline \texttt{"\textbackslash n"}
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works faster than \texttt{endl},
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becauses \texttt{endl} always causes
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a flush operation.
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The C functions \texttt{scanf}
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and \texttt{printf} are an alternative
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to the C++ standard streams.
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They are usually a bit faster,
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but they are also more difficult to use.
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The following code reads two integers from the input:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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int a, b;
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scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);
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\end{lstlisting}
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The following code prints two integers:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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int a = 123, b = 456;
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printf("%d %d\n", a, b);
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\end{lstlisting}
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Sometimes the program should read a whole line
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from the input, possibly with spaces.
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This can be accomplished using the
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\texttt{getline} function:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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string s;
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getline(cin, s);
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\end{lstlisting}
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If the amount of data is unknown, the following
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loop can be handy:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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while (cin >> x) {
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// koodia
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}
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\end{lstlisting}
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This loop reads elements from the input
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one after another, until there is no
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more data available in the input.
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In some contest systems, files are used for
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input and output.
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An easy solution for this is to write
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the code as usual using standard streams,
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but add the following lines to the beginning of the code:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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freopen("input.txt", "r", stdin);
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freopen("output.txt", "w", stdout);
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\end{lstlisting}
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After this, the code reads the input from the file
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''input.txt'' and writes the output to the file
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''output.txt''.
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\section{Handling numbers}
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\index{integer}
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\subsubsection{Integers}
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The most popular integer type in competitive programming
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is \texttt{int}. This is a 32-bit type with
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value range $-2^{31} \ldots 2^{31}-1$,
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i.e., about $-2 \cdot 10^9 \ldots 2 \cdot 10^9$.
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If the type \texttt{int} is not enough,
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the 64-bit type \texttt{long long} can be used,
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with value range $-2^{63} \ldots 2^{63}-1$,
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i.e., about $-9 \cdot 10^{18} \ldots 9 \cdot 10^{18}$.
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The following code defines a
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\texttt{long long} variable:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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long long x = 123456789123456789LL;
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\end{lstlisting}
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The suffix \texttt{LL} means that the
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type of the number is \texttt{long long}.
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A typical error when using the type \texttt{long long}
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is that the type \texttt{int} is still used somewhere
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in the code.
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For example, the following code contains
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a subtle error:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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int a = 123456789;
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long long b = a*a;
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cout << b << "\n"; // -1757895751
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\end{lstlisting}
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Even though the variable \texttt{b} is of type \texttt{long long},
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both numbers in the expression \texttt{a*a}
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are of type \texttt{int} and the result is
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also of type \texttt{int}.
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Because of this, the variable \texttt{b} will
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contain a wrong result.
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The problem can be solved by changing the type
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of \texttt{a} to \texttt{long long} or
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by changing the expression to \texttt{(long long)a*a}.
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Usually, the problems are written so that the
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type \texttt{long long} is enough.
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Still, it is good to know that
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the \texttt{g++} compiler also features
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an 128-bit type \texttt{\_\_int128\_t}
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with value range
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$-2^{127} \ldots 2^{127}-1$, i.e., $-10^{38} \ldots 10^{38}$.
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However, this type is not available in all contest systems.
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\subsubsection{Modular arithmetic}
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\index{remainder}
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\index{modular arithmetic}
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We denote by $x \bmod m$ the remainder
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when $x$ is divided by $m$.
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For example, $17 \bmod 5 = 2$,
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because $17 = 3 \cdot 5 + 2$.
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Sometimes, the answer for a problem is a
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very big integer but it is enough to
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print it ''modulo $m$'', i.e.,
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the remainder when the answer is divided by $m$
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(for example, ''modulo $10^9+7$'').
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The idea is that even if the actual answer
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may be very big,
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it is enough to use the types
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\texttt{int} and \texttt{long long}.
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An important property of the remainder is that
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in addition, subtraction and multiplication,
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the remainder can be calculated before the operation:
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\[
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\begin{array}{rcr}
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(a+b) \bmod m & = & (a \bmod m + b \bmod m) \bmod m \\
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(a-b) \bmod m & = & (a \bmod m - b \bmod m) \bmod m \\
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(a \cdot b) \bmod m & = & (a \bmod m \cdot b \bmod m) \bmod m
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\end{array}
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\]
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Thus, we can calculate the remainder after every operation
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and the numbers will never become too large.
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For example, the following code calculates $n!$,
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the factorial of $n$, modulo $m$:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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long long x = 1;
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for (int i = 2; i <= n i++) {
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x = (x*i)%m;
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}
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cout << x << "\n";
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\end{lstlisting}
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Usually, the answer should be always given so
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that the remainder is between $0\ldots m-1$.
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However, in C++ and other languages,
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the remainder of a negative number can
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be negative.
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An easy way to make sure that this will
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not happen is to first calculate
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the remainder as usual and then add $m$
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if the result is negative:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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x = x%m;
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if (x < 0) x += m;
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\end{lstlisting}
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However, this is only needed when there
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are subtractions in the code and the
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remainder may become negative.
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\subsubsection{Floating point numbers}
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\index{floating point number}
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The usual floating point types in
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competitive programming are
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the 64-bit \texttt{double}
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and, as an extension in the \texttt{g++} compiler,
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the 80-bit \texttt{long double}.
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In most cases, \texttt{double} is enough,
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but \texttt{long double} is more accurate.
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The required precision of the answer
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is usually given.
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The easiest way is to use
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the \texttt{printf} function
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that can be given the number of decimal places.
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For example, the following code prints
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the value of $x$ with 9 decimal places:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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printf("%.9f\n", x);
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\end{lstlisting}
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A difficulty when using floating point numbers
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is that some numbers cannot be represented
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accurately, but there will be rounding errors.
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For example, the result of the following code
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is surprising:
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\begin{lstlisting}
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double x = 0.3*3+0.1;
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printf("%.20f\n", x); // 0.99999999999999988898
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\end{lstlisting}
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Because of a rounding error,
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the value of \texttt{x} is a bit less than 1,
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while the correct value would be 1.
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It is risky to compare floating point numbers
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with the \texttt{==} operator,
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because it is possible that the values should
|
|
|
|
be equal but they are not due to rounding errors.
|
|
|
|
A better way to compare floating point numbers
|
|
|
|
is to assume that two numbers are equal
|
|
|
|
if the difference between them is $\varepsilon$,
|
|
|
|
where $\varepsilon$ is a small number.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
In practice, the numbers can be compared
|
|
|
|
as follows ($\varepsilon=10^{-9}$):
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
if (abs(a-b) < 1e-9) {
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
// a and b are equal
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Note that while floating point numbers are inaccurate,
|
|
|
|
integers up to a certain limit can be still
|
|
|
|
represented accurately.
|
|
|
|
For example, using \texttt{double},
|
|
|
|
it is possible to accurately represent all
|
|
|
|
integers having absolute value at most $2^{53}$.
|
|
|
|
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
\section{Shortening code}
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
Short code is ideal in competitive programming,
|
|
|
|
because the algorithm should be implemented
|
|
|
|
as fast as possible.
|
|
|
|
Because of this, competitive programmers often define
|
|
|
|
shorter names for datatypes and other parts of code.
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Type names}
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\index{tuppdef@\texttt{typedef}}
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
Using the command \texttt{typedef}
|
|
|
|
it is possible to give a shorter name
|
|
|
|
to a datatype.
|
|
|
|
For example, the name \texttt{long long} is long,
|
|
|
|
so we can define a shorter name \texttt{ll}:
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
typedef long long ll;
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
After this, the code
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
long long a = 123456789;
|
|
|
|
long long b = 987654321;
|
|
|
|
cout << a*b << "\n";
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
can be shortened as follows:
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
ll a = 123456789;
|
|
|
|
ll b = 987654321;
|
|
|
|
cout << a*b << "\n";
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
The command \texttt{typedef}
|
|
|
|
can also be used with more complex types.
|
|
|
|
For example, the following code gives
|
|
|
|
the name \texttt{vi} for a vector of integers,
|
|
|
|
and the name \texttt{pi} for a pair
|
|
|
|
that contains two integers.
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
typedef vector<int> vi;
|
|
|
|
typedef pair<int,int> pi;
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Macros}
|
|
|
|
\index{macro}
|
|
|
|
Another way to shorten the code is to define
|
|
|
|
\key{macros}.
|
|
|
|
A macro means that certain strings in
|
|
|
|
the code will be changed before the compilation.
|
|
|
|
In C++, macros are defined using the
|
|
|
|
command \texttt{\#define}.
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
For example, we can define the following macros:
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
#define F first
|
|
|
|
#define S second
|
|
|
|
#define PB push_back
|
|
|
|
#define MP make_pair
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
After this, the code
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
v.push_back(make_pair(y1,x1));
|
|
|
|
v.push_back(make_pair(y2,x2));
|
|
|
|
int d = v[i].first+v[i].second;
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
can be shortened as follows:
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
v.PB(MP(y1,x1));
|
|
|
|
v.PB(MP(y2,x2));
|
|
|
|
int d = v[i].F+v[i].S;
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
It is also possible to define a macro with parameters
|
|
|
|
which makes it possible to shorten loops and other
|
|
|
|
structures in the code.
|
|
|
|
For example, we can define the following macro:
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
#define REP(i,a,b) for (int i = a; i <= b; i++)
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
After this, the code
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
|
|
|
|
haku(i);
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
2016-12-29 00:13:40 +01:00
|
|
|
can be shortened as follows:
|
2016-12-28 23:54:51 +01:00
|
|
|
\begin{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
REP(i,1,n) {
|
|
|
|
haku(i);
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
\end{lstlisting}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\section{Matematiikka}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Matematiikka on tärkeässä asemassa kisakoodauksessa,
|
|
|
|
ja menestyvän kisakoodarin täytyy osata myös
|
|
|
|
hyvin matematiikkaa.
|
|
|
|
Käymme seuraavaksi läpi joukon keskeisiä
|
|
|
|
matematiikan käsitteitä ja kaavoja.
|
|
|
|
Palaamme moniin aiheisiin myöhemmin tarkemmin kirjan aikana.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Summakaavat}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Jokaiselle summalle muotoa
|
|
|
|
\[\sum_{x=1}^n x^k = 1^k+2^k+3^k+\ldots+n^k\]
|
|
|
|
on olemassa laskukaava,
|
|
|
|
kun $k$ on jokin positiivinen kokonaisluku.
|
|
|
|
Tällainen laskukaava on aina astetta $k+1$
|
|
|
|
oleva polynomi. Esimerkiksi
|
|
|
|
\[\sum_{x=1}^n x = 1+2+3+\ldots+n = \frac{n(n+1)}{2}\]
|
|
|
|
ja
|
|
|
|
\[\sum_{x=1}^n x^2 = 1^2+2^2+3^2+\ldots+n^2 = \frac{n(n+1)(2n+1)}{6}.\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\key{Aritmeettinen summa} on summa, \index{aritmeettinen summa@aritmeettinen summa}
|
|
|
|
jossa jokaisen vierekkäisen luvun erotus on vakio.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi
|
|
|
|
\[3+7+11+15\]
|
|
|
|
on aritmeettinen summa,
|
|
|
|
jossa vakio on 4.
|
|
|
|
Aritmeettinen summa voidaan laskea kaavalla
|
|
|
|
\[\frac{n(a+b)}{2},\]
|
|
|
|
jossa summan ensimmäinen luku on $a$,
|
|
|
|
viimeinen luku on $b$ ja lukujen määrä on $n$.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi
|
|
|
|
\[3+7+11+15=\frac{4 \cdot (3+15)}{2} = 36.\]
|
|
|
|
Kaava perustuu siihen, että summa muodostuu $n$ luvusta
|
|
|
|
ja luvun suuruus on keskimäärin $(a+b)/2$.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\index{geometrinen summa@geometrinen summa}
|
|
|
|
\key{Geometrinen summa} on summa,
|
|
|
|
jossa jokaisen vierekkäisen luvun suhde on vakio.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi
|
|
|
|
\[3+6+12+24\]
|
|
|
|
on geometrinen summa,
|
|
|
|
jossa vakio on 2.
|
|
|
|
Geometrinen summa voidaan laskea kaavalla
|
|
|
|
\[\frac{bx-a}{x-1},\]
|
|
|
|
jossa summan ensimmäinen luku on $a$,
|
|
|
|
viimeinen luku on $b$ ja vierekkäisten lukujen suhde on $x$.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi
|
|
|
|
\[3+6+12+24=\frac{24 \cdot 2 - 3}{2-1} = 45.\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Geometrisen summan kaavan voi johtaa merkitsemällä
|
|
|
|
\[ S = a + ax + ax^2 + \cdots + b .\]
|
|
|
|
Kertomalla molemmat puolet $x$:llä saadaan
|
|
|
|
\[ xS = ax + ax^2 + ax^3 + \cdots + bx,\]
|
|
|
|
josta kaava seuraa ratkaisemalla yhtälön
|
|
|
|
\[ xS-S = bx-a.\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Geometrisen summan erikoistapaus on usein kätevä kaava
|
|
|
|
\[1+2+4+8+\ldots+2^{n-1}=2^n-1.\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
% Geometrisen summan sukulainen on
|
|
|
|
% \[x+2x^2+3x^3+\cdots+k x^k = \frac{kx^{k+2}-(k+1)x^{k+1}+x}{(x-1)^2}. \]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\index{harmoninen summa@harmoninen summa}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\key{Harmoninen summa} on summa muotoa
|
|
|
|
\[ \sum_{x=1}^n \frac{1}{x} = 1+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{3}+\ldots+\frac{1}{n}.\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yläraja harmonisen summan suuruudelle on $\log_2(n)+1$.
|
|
|
|
Summaa voi näet arvioida ylöspäin
|
|
|
|
muuttamalla jokaista termiä $1/k$ niin,
|
|
|
|
että $k$:ksi tulee alempi 2:n potenssi.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi tapauksessa $n=6$ arvioksi tulee
|
|
|
|
\[ 1+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{5}+\frac{1}{6} \le
|
|
|
|
1+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{4}.\]
|
|
|
|
Tämän seurauksena summa jakaantuu $\log_2(n)+1$ osaan
|
|
|
|
($1$, $2 \cdot 1/2$, $4 \cdot 1/4$, jne.),
|
|
|
|
joista jokaisen summa on enintään 1.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Joukko-oppi}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\index{joukko-oppi}
|
|
|
|
\index{joukko@joukko}
|
|
|
|
\index{leikkaus@leikkaus}
|
|
|
|
\index{yhdiste@yhdiste}
|
|
|
|
\index{erotus@erotus}
|
|
|
|
\index{osajoukko@osajoukko}
|
|
|
|
\index{perusjoukko}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\key{Joukko} on kokoelma alkioita.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi joukko
|
|
|
|
\[X=\{2,4,7\}\]
|
|
|
|
sisältää alkiot 2, 4 ja 7.
|
|
|
|
Merkintä $\emptyset$ tarkoittaa tyhjää joukkoa.
|
|
|
|
Joukon $S$ koko eli alkoiden määrä on $|S|$.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi äskeisessä joukossa $|X|=3$.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Merkintä $x \in S$ tarkoittaa,
|
|
|
|
että alkio $x$ on joukossa $S$,
|
|
|
|
ja merkintä $x \notin S$ tarkoittaa,
|
|
|
|
että alkio $x$ ei ole joukossa $S$.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi äskeisessä joukossa
|
|
|
|
\[4 \in X \hspace{10px}\textrm{ja}\hspace{10px} 5 \notin X.\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{samepage}
|
|
|
|
Uusia joukkoja voidaan muodostaa joukko-operaatioilla
|
|
|
|
seuraavasti:
|
|
|
|
\begin{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\item \key{Leikkaus} $A \cap B$ sisältää alkiot,
|
|
|
|
jotka ovat molemmissa joukoista $A$ ja $B$.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi jos $A=\{1,2,5\}$ ja $B=\{2,4\}$,
|
|
|
|
niin $A \cap B = \{2\}$.
|
|
|
|
\item \key{Yhdiste} $A \cup B$ sisältää alkiot,
|
|
|
|
jotka ovat ainakin toisessa joukoista $A$ ja $B$.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi jos $A=\{3,7\}$ ja $B=\{2,3,8\}$,
|
|
|
|
niin $A \cup B = \{2,3,7,8\}$.
|
|
|
|
\item \key{Komplementti} $\bar A$ sisältää alkiot,
|
|
|
|
jotka eivät ole joukossa $A$.
|
|
|
|
Komplementin tulkinta riippuu siitä, mikä on
|
|
|
|
\key{perusjoukko} eli joukko, jossa on kaikki
|
|
|
|
mahdolliset alkiot. Esimerkiksi jos
|
|
|
|
$A=\{1,2,5,7\}$ ja perusjoukko on $P=\{1,2,\ldots,10\}$,
|
|
|
|
niin $\bar A = \{3,4,6,8,9,10\}$.
|
|
|
|
\item \key{Erotus} $A \setminus B = A \cap \bar B$ sisältää alkiot,
|
|
|
|
jotka ovat joukossa $A$ mutta eivät joukossa $B$.
|
|
|
|
Huomaa, että $B$:ssä voi olla alkioita,
|
|
|
|
joita ei ole $A$:ssa.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi jos $A=\{2,3,7,8\}$ ja $B=\{3,5,8\}$,
|
|
|
|
niin $A \setminus B = \{2,7\}$.
|
|
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
\end{samepage}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Merkintä $A \subset S$ tarkoittaa,
|
|
|
|
että $A$ on $S$:n \key{osajoukko}
|
|
|
|
eli jokainen $A$:n alkio esiintyy $S$:ssä.
|
|
|
|
Joukon $S$ osajoukkojen yhteismäärä on $2^{|S|}$.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi joukon $\{2,4,7\}$
|
|
|
|
osajoukot ovat
|
|
|
|
\begin{center}
|
|
|
|
$\emptyset$,
|
|
|
|
$\{2\}$, $\{4\}$, $\{7\}$, $\{2,4\}$, $\{2,7\}$, $\{4,7\}$ ja $\{2,4,7\}$.
|
|
|
|
\end{center}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Usein esiintyviä joukkoja ovat
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
|
|
|
|
\item $\mathbb{N}$ (luonnolliset luvut),
|
|
|
|
\item $\mathbb{Z}$ (kokonaisluvut),
|
|
|
|
\item $\mathbb{Q}$ (rationaaliluvut) ja
|
|
|
|
\item $\mathbb{R}$ (reaaliluvut).
|
|
|
|
\end{itemize}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Luonnollisten lukujen joukko $\mathbb{N}$ voidaan määritellä
|
|
|
|
tilanteesta riippuen kahdella tavalla:
|
|
|
|
joko $\mathbb{N}=\{0,1,2,\ldots\}$
|
|
|
|
tai $\mathbb{N}=\{1,2,3,...\}$.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Joukon voi muodostaa myös säännöllä muotoa
|
|
|
|
\[\{f(n) : n \in S\},\]
|
|
|
|
missä $f(n)$ on jokin funktio.
|
|
|
|
Tällainen joukko sisältää kaikki alkiot
|
|
|
|
$f(n)$, jossa $n$ on valittu joukosta $S$.
|
|
|
|
Esimerkiksi joukko
|
|
|
|
\[X=\{2n : n \in \mathbb{Z}\}\]
|
|
|
|
sisältää kaikki parilliset kokonaisluvut.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\subsubsection{Logiikka}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\index{logiikka@logiikka}
|
|
|
|
\index{negaatio@negaatio}
|
|
|
|
\index{konjunktio@konjunktio}
|
|
|
|
\index{disjunktio@disjunktio}
|
|
|
|
\index{implikaatio@implikaatio}
|
|
|
|
\index{ekvivalenssi@ekvivalenssi}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Loogisen lausekkeen arvo on joko \key{tosi} (1) tai
|
|
|
|
\key{epätosi} (0).
|
|
|
|
Tärkeimmät loogiset operaatiot ovat
|
|
|
|
$\lnot$ (\key{negaatio}),
|
|
|
|
$\land$ (\key{konjunktio}),
|
|
|
|
$\lor$ (\key{disjunktio}),
|
|
|
|
$\Rightarrow$ (\key{implikaatio}) sekä
|
|
|
|
$\Leftrightarrow$ (\key{ekvivalenssi}).
|
|
|
|
Seuraava taulukko näyttää operaatioiden merkityksen:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{center}
|
|
|
|
\begin{tabular}{rr|rrrrrrr}
|
|
|
|
$A$ & $B$ & $\lnot A$ & $\lnot B$ & $A \land B$ & $A \lor B$ & $A \Rightarrow B$ & $A \Leftrightarrow B$ \\
|
|
|
|
\hline
|
|
|
|
0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
|
|
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0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
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1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
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1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
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\end{tabular}
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\end{center}
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Negaatio $\lnot A$ muuttaa lausekkeen käänteiseksi.
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Lauseke $A \land B$ on tosi, jos molemmat $A$ ja $B$ ovat tosia,
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ja lauseke $A \lor B$ on tosi, jos $A$ tai $B$ on tosi.
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Lauseke $A \Rightarrow B$ on tosi,
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jos $A$:n ollessa tosi myös $B$ on aina tosi.
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Lauseke $A \Leftrightarrow B$ on tosi,
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jos $A$:n ja $B$:n totuusarvo on sama.
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\index{predikaatti@predikaatti}
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\key{Predikaatti} on lauseke, jonka arvo on tosi tai epätosi
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riippuen sen parametreista.
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Yleensä predikaattia merkitään suurella kirjaimella.
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Esimerkiksi voimme määritellä predikaatin $P(x)$,
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joka on tosi tarkalleen silloin, kun $x$ on alkuluku.
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Tällöin esimerkiksi $P(7)$ on tosi, kun taas $P(8)$ on epätosi.
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\index{kvanttori@kvanttori}
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\key{Kvanttori} ilmaisee, että looginen
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lauseke liittyy jollakin tavalla joukon alkioihin.
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Tavalliset kvanttorit
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ovat $\forall$ (\key{kaikille}) ja $\exists$ (\key{on olemassa}).
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Esimerkiksi
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\[\forall x (\exists y (y < x))\]
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tarkoittaa, että jokaiselle joukon
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alkiolle $x$ on olemassa
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jokin joukon alkio $y$ niin, että $y$ on $x$:ää pienempi.
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Tämä pätee kokonaislukujen joukossa,
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mutta ei päde luonnollisten lukujen joukossa.
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Yllä esitettyjen merkintöjä avulla on mahdollista esittää
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monenlaisia loogisia väitteitä.
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Esimerkiksi
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\[\forall x ((x>2 \land \lnot P(x)) \Rightarrow (\exists a (\exists b (x = ab \land a > 1 \land b > 1))))\]
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tarkoittaa, että jos luku $x$ on suurempi
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kuin 2 eikä ole alkuluku,
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niin on olemassa luvut $a$ ja $b$,
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joiden tulo on $x$ ja jotka molemmat ovat suurempia kuin 1.
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Tämä väite pitää paikkansa kokonaislukujen joukossa.
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\subsubsection{Funktioita}
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Funktio $\lfloor x \rfloor$ pyöristää luvun $x$
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alaspäin kokonaisluvuksi ja
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funktio $\lceil x \rceil$ pyöristää luvun $x$
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ylöspäin kokonaisluvuksi. Esimerkiksi
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\[ \lfloor 3/2 \rfloor = 1 \hspace{10px} \textrm{ja} \hspace{10px} \lceil 3/2 \rceil = 2.\]
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Funktiot $\min(x_1,x_2,\ldots,x_n)$
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ja $\max(x_1,x_2,\ldots,x_n)$
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palauttavat pienimmän ja suurimman
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arvoista $x_1,x_2,\ldots,x_n$.
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Esimerkiksi
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\[ \min(1,2,3)=1 \hspace{10px} \textrm{ja} \hspace{10px} \max(1,2,3)=3.\]
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\index{kertoma@kertoma}
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\key{Kertoma} $n!$ määritellään
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\[\prod_{x=1}^n x = 1 \cdot 2 \cdot 3 \cdot \ldots \cdot n\]
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tai vaihtoehtoisesti rekursiivisesti
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\[
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\begin{array}{lcl}
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0! & = & 1 \\
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n! & = & n \cdot (n-1)! \\
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\end{array}
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\]
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\index{Fibonaccin luku@Fibonaccin luku}
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\key{Fibonaccin luvut} esiintyvät monissa erilaisissa yhteyksissä.
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Ne määritellään seuraavasti rekursiivisesti:
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\[
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\begin{array}{lcl}
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f(0) & = & 0 \\
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f(1) & = & 1 \\
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f(n) & = & f(n-1)+f(n-2) \\
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\end{array}
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\]
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Ensimmäiset Fibonaccin luvut ovat
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\[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, \ldots\]
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Fibonaccin lukujen laskemiseen on olemassa myös
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suljetun muodon kaava
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\[f(n)=\frac{(1 + \sqrt{5})^n - (1-\sqrt{5})^n}{2^n \sqrt{5}}.\]
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\subsubsection{Logaritmi}
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\index{logaritmi@logaritmi}
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Luvun $x$
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\key{logaritmi} merkitään $\log_k(x)$, missä $k$ on logaritmin kantaluku.
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Logaritmin määritelmän mukaan
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$\log_k(x)=a$ tarkalleen silloin, kun $k^a=x$.
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Algoritmiikassa hyödyllinen tulkinta on,
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että logaritmi $\log_k(x)$ ilmaisee, montako kertaa lukua $x$
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täytyy jakaa $k$:lla, ennen kuin tulos on 1.
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Esimerkiksi $\log_2(32)=5$,
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koska lukua 32 täytyy jakaa 2:lla 5 kertaa:
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\[32 \rightarrow 16 \rightarrow 8 \rightarrow 4 \rightarrow 2 \rightarrow 1 \]
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Logaritmi tulee usein vastaan algoritmien analyysissa,
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koska monessa tehokkaassa algoritmissa jokin asia puolittuu
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joka askeleella.
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Niinpä logaritmin avulla voi arvioida algoritmin tehokkuutta.
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Logaritmille pätee kaava
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\[\log_k(ab) = \log_k(a)+\log_k(b),\]
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|
josta seuraa edelleen
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\[\log_k(x^n) = n \cdot \log_k(x).\]
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Samoin logaritmille pätee
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|
\[\log_k\Big(\frac{a}{b}\Big) = \log_k(a)-\log_k(b).\]
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Lisäksi on voimassa kaava
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\[\log_u(x) = \frac{\log_k(x)}{\log_k(u)},\]
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|
minkä ansiosta logaritmeja voi laskea mille tahansa kantaluvulle,
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|
jos on keino laskea logaritmeja jollekin kantaluvulle.
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\index{luonnollinen logaritmi@luonnollinen logaritmi}
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|
\index{Neperin luku@Neperin luku}
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|
Luvun $x$ \key{luonnollinen logaritmi} $\ln(x)$ on logaritmi, jonka kantaluku on
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|
\key{Neperin luku} $e \approx 2{,}71828$.
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Vielä yksi logaritmin ominaisuus on, että
|
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luvun $x$ numeroiden määrä $b$-kantaisessa
|
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|
lukujärjestelmässä
|
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|
on $\lfloor \log_b(x)+1 \rfloor$.
|
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|
Esimerkiksi luvun $123$ esitys
|
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|
2-järjestelmässä on 1111011 ja
|
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|
$\lfloor \log_2(123)+1 \rfloor = 7$.
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